The science of attachment parenting

© 2008 – 2022 Gwen Dewar, Ph.D., all rights reserved

"Zipper parenting," or AP, is an approach to child-rearing intended to forge opens in a new windowpotent, secure attachments between parents and children.

For many parents, this approach feels intuitive. And anthropological enquiry suggests that "attachment" practices — such as babe-wearing and co-sleeping — accept deep roots in our evolutionary by (Konner 2005).

But does AP contribute to better kid outcomes?

Not surprisingly, it depends on what definition you use.

If we use the definition first proposed past William and Martha Sears, and so "attachment parenting" is substantially another term for "sensitive, responsive parenting."

The Searses propose a list of principles and practices that go along with AP (see below), but they have stressed that it isn't necessary for parents to follow all of them. The practices are intended to aid caregivers achieve the goals of beingness sensitive and responsive to children. Parents can experiment, and see what works.

A similar approach has been taken by Attachment Parenting International. As this arrangement states on its website, parents should "take what works and exit the rest."

This is the definition I will address hither, and, as we will see, there is a large body of research indicating that sensitive, responsive parenting benefits children.

Among other things, it appears to opens in a new windowprotect children from the effects of toxic stress — helping children develop resilience in the face of arduousness. It may also reduce a child's hazard of developing beliefs issues, and promote the development of moral reasoning (run across below).

If we focus on specific practices, the evidence is mixed. In general, the practices recommended by the Sears are beneficial. Just not every practice works for everyone, and not every merits (made by diverse advocates) has been supported. For instance, baby-wearing has benefits, but information technology doesn't announced to cease colicky babies from crying excessively.

Then evidence in favor of "sensitive, responsive parenting" doesn't tell the states that every associated do is the all-time selection for every family unit. If nosotros want to know the effects of a specific exercise, we demand controlled studies that target that particular practise.

What about other definitions of attachment parenting?

It's important that other conceptions of attachment parenting are non consequent with what nosotros know about constructive care-giving behavior. They also may be rooted in pseudo-science beliefs nearly the biology of motherhood.

For example, co-ordinate to one writer, attachment parenting means responding immediately to a crying infant past offer a breast; "waking every hour" at dark to feed; or rushing in with pre-emptive attempts to soothe, and so that parents neglect to detect out what their babies really need (e.g., Jenner 2014).

This isn't the sort of behavior that has been linked with secure attachments. And it's inconsistent with what researchers hateful by "sensitive, responsive parenting."

To fit the researcher's criteria for "sensitive and responsive," a parent needs to accurately interpret the baby's signals, and provide an appropriate response. That'south non what this definition describes, and all that rushing to arbitrate tin be counter-productive.

For instance, babies often make noises during brief moments of waking during the night. They may as well vocalize when they are sleeping. If parents misinterpret these sounds and rush to feed a baby, they are needlessly depriving everyone of sleep — and mayhap instruction the infant to awaken often at night!

So if we define "attachment parenting" as a kind of corybantic endeavor to deliver fast responses (including unnecessary intrusions that prevent babies from opens in a new windowdeveloping patterns of consolidated, nighttime slumber), we take little reason to retrieve this would do good families.

The same may exist said for definitions that crave parents to prefer an extremely child-centered lifestyle — the sort that leaves parents feeling overwhelmed, unsupported, and socially isolated from other adults.

Not simply is this bad for a parent'due south mental health, the popular rationale for this lifestyle appears to be rooted in fairy tale beliefs about what's "natural," like the idea that human mothers evolved to be intensive, sectional providers of parental intendance.

The implication is mothers are designed to devote all their energies to child-rearing, and thrive doing and so. It'south the ancestral style. If a female parent can't manage it — or doesn't enjoy it — something is wrong.

Anthropological research refutes these notions. If at that place are any peoples whose life-ways most closely resemble those of our ancestors, information technology is the world'due south final remaining hunter-gatherers. However hunter-gatherer mothers don't devote all their energies to child-rearing.

Yes, they have child care duties, but they have other piece of work likewise, and they heighten their children with the help of relatives and friends.

In some of these societies, equally much of half the daytime care of infants is contributed by other relatives — like fathers, siblings, grandmothers (Konner 2010; Hrdy 2009; Hrdy 1999).

Even in societies where hunter-gatherer mothers provide the majority of infant care, parenting bears lilliputian resemblance to the fairy tale scenario of "total motherhood." When coping with a crying infant, mothers nearly always receive some sort of help — either with soothing the infant, or with another aspect of infant care (Kruger and Konner 2010).

So it's piece of cake to discover problems with "attachment parenting" if nosotros define it differently than the Sears accept.

In the remainder of this article, I volition ignore alternative definitions, and focus on reviewing the testify favoring physical closeness, sensitivity, and responsiveness in parents. For information about books, websites, and organizations that offering support to parents committed to these principles, opens in a new windowclick here.

Zipper parenting in its original formulation: What does it expect like?

According to William and Martha Sears, attachment parenting is associated with a range of practices and approaches, including

• the frequent holding and carrying of infants ("baby-wearing"),
• breastfeeding,
• the opens in a new window avoidance of strictly-timed, adult-imposed feeding schedules ,
• nurturing touch (including skin-to-skin "kangaroo care" for infants),
• existence responsive to a baby's cries,
• being sensitive and responsive to a child's emotions (e.g., by helping him or her cope with opens in a new window nighttime fears) , and
• co-sleeping (e.g., infants sleeping in the same room with caregivers, or immature siblings sharing a bedroom).

In addition, care-givers may endeavor handle misbehavior through techniques sometimes identified as opens in a new window"positive subject field." These may include distracting or redirecting very young children; providing patient, timely reminders; emotion-coaching; reasoning; opens in a new windowinducing empathy; and opens in a new windowusing language that motivates kids to bounce back from mistakes.

But William and Martha Sears, who coined the term "attachment parenting"–note that there is no checklist of specific practices that parents must follow (Sears and Sears 2001).

What's important, argues these authors, is that parents strive to be sensitive and responsive — so that they can acquire how to meet their children'due south needs in an affectionate, effective mode.

This is non the same every bit beingness overly-protective. Past definition, securely-attached kids are not overly-clingy or helpless. They are the kids who feel confident to explore the world on their ain. They can do this because they trust that their parents will be there for them (Mercer 2006).

And if we take the Sears's definition to heart — if attachment parenting is synonymous with "sensitive, responsive parenting" — then it follows that zipper parenting will look dissimilar from one family unit to the next.

In fact, attachment parenting may take different forms within the aforementioned family. Parents arrange their approaches to adjust the individual needs of each child. For example, opens in a new windowsome babies require lots of touch and social stimulation, while others may find this to be overwhelming. Being sensitive and responsive means attention to your child's cues, and adjusting your approach accordingly.

What'due south the scientific instance for zipper parenting?

Advocates of attachment parenting make two major claims:

one. sensitive, responsive parenting leads kids to form secure attachments, and

2. securely-attached kids are healthier and happier.

Some writers accept attempted to support these claims with studies of extremely deprived infants (both human and nonhuman).

For example, research demonstrates that kids who are terribly neglected and abused—like children raised in the infamous Romanaian orphanages—endure neurocognitive impairment and socio-emotional issues (Chugani et al 2001).

While such enquiry confirms that chronic stress and trauma are bad for the encephalon, it'southward a stretch to cite these studies as proof that zipper parenting is superior to "mainstream" Western parenting.

Equally a outcome, some critics take argued that the zipper parenting movement is based on overblown or fallacious claims (Hayes 1998; Warner 2006).

This is unfortunate, because there is good show supporting the claims of zipper parenting advocates.

First, consider the claim that sensitive, responsive parenting leads to secure bonds. Many features of attachment parenting have been linked with zipper security:

• High-quality communication. A report of Dogon mothers in Mali found that the quality of advice between mother and infant was associated with more than secure attachment relationships (True et al 2001).

• Maternal sensitivity during infant play. A study of premature infants reports that infants whose mothers were unresponsive or more controlling during playtime were more likely to exist insecurely-attached (Fuertes et al 2006). Deeply-fastened infants were more likely to have mothers who were sensitive to their childrens' interests and needs (Fuertes et al 2006).

• Insight into a child's mental and emotional states. A study of mothers and their 12 month onetime infants reports that mothers who showed greater insight about their babies' psychological experiences were rated equally more than sensitive and were more than likely to have securely-fastened infants (Koren-Karie 2002). Some other report reports that mothers who showed a more accurate understanding of their infants' mental states at vi months were more likely to accept securely-attached infants at 12 months (Meins et al 2001). Read more about these links opens in a new windowhere.

• Sensitivity to an infant's distress. A study analyzing data collected past National Institute of Child Health and Human being Development (NICHD) reports that American mothers who showed greater sensitivity to their infants' distress at half dozen months were more likely to have securely attached toddlers at xv months (McElwain and Booth-Laforce 2006). By contrast, infants are more likely to develop insecure attachments when mothers "shut up their faces" — looking away from the baby, and failing to answer with sympathetic facial expressions (Beebe and Steele 2013).

• Baby-wearing. An experimental written report randomly assigned American mothers of low socioeconomic status to either vesture their newborns in soft baby carriers or to acquit their babies in portable infant seats. At thirteen months, babies in the soft-carrier group were more probable to be securely-attached to their mothers (Anisfeld et al 1990).

• Emotional availability. Enquiry suggests a link betwixt secure attachment and emotional availability—being open up to discuss emotions, and being ready to reply sensitively and appropriately to the emotions of others (Easterbrooks et al 2000). An Israeli written report observed mothers interacting with their infants and found that moms rated as more emotionally available were more likely to take securely attached children (Ziv et al 2000).

Then at that place's the question of child outcomes. Exercise secure attachments and sensitive, responsive parenting atomic number 82 to happier, healthier kids? Allow's take a look at some specific ways that attachment parenting may benefit children.

Promoting independence

As noted above, opens in a new windowsecurely-attached children are more likely to explore on their own (Mercer 2006).

In addition, infants are less likely to develop fearful tendencies if their mothers evidence higher levels of emotional sensitivity and responsiveness during parent-child interactions (Gartstein et al 2017).

Fostering amend emotional regulation

When researchers tracked 45 mother-child pairs from infancy to age seven, they found that infants who were securely-attached during infancy were more than likely to demonstrate emotional availability at age seven (Easterbrooks et al 2000).

Why? Secure attachments may exist intrinsically helpful, but it'south also likely that specific parenting characteristics play a role.

For case, in a written report of American children (anile 9-11 years), researchers establish that kids with secure attachment relationships–and greater levels of maternal support–showed "higher levels of positive mood, more effective coping, and better regulation of emotion in the classroom." (Kerns et al 2007).

Some other written report plant that parents who were responsive to their children'south distress had kids who were ameliorate at regulating their own, negative emotions. In addition, children showed an improved power to regulate their positive emotions if their mothers showed higher levels of warmth (Davidov and Grusec 1996).

Helping children cope with stress

Every bit I note in this article virtually opens in a new windowstress in babies, in that location is a lot we can do to keep babies calm and happy. It'southward truthful for older children too. But do these things make a big divergence?

I think they so, particularly for children who are very sensitive, emotionally reactive, anxious, or exposed to high levels of environmental stress.

For example, at that place is compelling prove that skin-to-skin contact helps babies develop healthy stress response systems.

In 1 study comparing two groups of preterm infants, researchers found that children who'd received pare-to-skin contact in the first weeks postpartum had developed, by age 10, more good for you stress response systems, improved sleep patterns, and meliorate cognitive control (Feldman et al 2014).

In some other report, newborns at loftier chance for developing abnormal stress responses showed no evidence of such problems at vii months — not if their mothers reported giving their babies lots of caresses (Precipitous et al 2012).

In addition, studies similar co-sleeping with reduced stress reactivity.

• In a study of Dutch infants, co-sleeping babies experienced lower spikes in the stress hormone cortisol when they were subjected to psychologically lamentable situations (Beijers et al 2013).
• An experiment testing newborns' responses to bathing found that, compared to co-sleepers, babies who slept lone experienced sharper spikes in cortisol levels (Tollenaar et al 2012).
• And researchers have reported that British children (anile 3-8) who slept in their parents' rooms showed lower daily levels of the stress hormone cortisol (Waynforth 2007).

In that location is likewise prove for the stress-busting ability of parental warmth.

As I note in opens in a new windowthis commodity, people who grow upward in poverty experience high levels of stress, and may therefore be at high risk of developing stress-related diseases,  atherosclerosis, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

But studies propose that kids who have highly nurturing parents are protected from these risks. And the advantage may begin early on in life: One study reports that infants of more sensitive mothers had lower baseline levels of the stress hormone cortisol (Blair et al 2006).

Other research, which I discuss in this opens in a new windowblog post, suggests that babies with "difficult" temperaments may turn into especially well-adjusted kids if they receive warm, sensitive parenting (Stright et al 2008; Pluess and Belsky 2010).

And researchers have found evidence that warm, sensitive parenting protects immature children from brain-shrinking stress.

Children exposed to early life stress are at loftier risk for reduced growth in the hippocampus, a brain construction that plays a cardinal part in spatial learning, retention consolidation, stress reactivity, and the processing of emotion. Is it inevitable? It doesn't announced to be. In ane study, kids from such backgrounds beat the odds — if they had parents who showed loftier levels of warmth and emotional support (Luby et al 2013).

Finally, there is reason to think that positive discipline may help kids bounciness back from stress.

A study of kids living in highly-stressed urban settings institute that parents who identified themselves as  practitioners of positive discipline were more likely to have children who were stress-resilient (Wyman et al 1991).

Fewer behavior problems

Observational studies bear witness that securely-attached children are less likely to develop behavior problems (Madigan et al 2015). Likewise, observational research indicates that children have ameliorate behavioral outcomes when they receive sensitive, responsive parenting.

For example, a longitudinal written report tracking the development of 544 babies found that children with more than sensitive mothers were less likely to feel executive function problems (including problems with attention, focus, and impulse command) when they were 4 years one-time (Kok et al 2013).

These links are suggestive, but not conclusive. Some children suffer from conditions that put them at higher risk for both behavior issues and difficulties forming attachment relationships. And maternal sensitivity is partly influenced past genes — genes mothers share with their children (Cents et al 2014).

What if these "maternal sensitivity" genes take the additional, independent effect of making it easier for children to develop strong executive office skills? We tin can't jump to conclusions virtually causation.

But controlled experiments aid clarify matters, and support the idea that sensitive, responsive parenting can have a directly effect on behavior problems.

Some examples:

• One experimental written report reports that children living in stressed families (characterized past marital conflict and frequent daily hassles) showed fewer overactive problem behaviors if their parents had been trained in positive parenting and sensitive bailiwick techniques (van Zeijl et al 2006).
• Another controlled study reported a "potent decrease in child conduct problems" after parents were coached in positive parenting tactics (Stattin et al 2015).
• A study of foster children found these kids developed ameliorate cognitive flexibility and perspective-taking skills if their caregivers had been trained to "follow the child's lead" by delivering sensitive, responsive, nurturing care (Lewis-Morrarty 2013).
• And when researchers taught parents how to improve their emotional coaching skills, kids experienced fewer behavior problems at school (Havighurst et al 2013).

Cognitive advantages

Yous might have heard that breastfeeding boosts a child's IQ-—if, like 90% of the population, he carries the FADS2 gene (Caspi et al 2007). That result wasn't replicated by a subsequent study, so the jury is notwithstanding out (Steer et al 2010).

I possibility is that breastfeeding is really just a marker of other parental behaviors and favorable environmental factors. For example, breast-feeding mothers tend to be better educated and more affluent.

Another possibility is that the benefits of breastfeeding depend on the precise content of chest milk — that merely milk with higher levels of DHA fatty acid (docosahexaenoic acid) confers special furnishings on cognitive ability (Bernard et al 2017).

Simply while nosotros await for more inquiry to clear these matters upward, there are hints secure attachments are linked with higher intellectual achievement.

For example, a British study of 36 middle-class mothers and their three-year-olds found that securely-fastened children scored 12 points higher on the Stanford-Binet intelligence test than did insecurely attached children (Crandell and Hobson 1999).

Another study tracking 108 French-Canadian children found that kids who were securely-fastened at age 6 scored higher on advice, cerebral engagement, and motivation to master new skills at age 8 (Moss et al 1998).

Of course, correlation doesn't prove causation. It might exist that smarter kids have an easier time forming secure attachments.

But at that place are also experimental studies that advise a causal link between zipper parenting practices and intelligence, at least in children who would otherwise be at risk. In these experiments, some mothers were randomly assigned to receive grooming in responsive parenting techniques. Afterwards, the infants of trained mothers showed greater growth in cognitive skills than did the infants of control moms (Landry et al 2003; 2006).

Moral development

Practise attachment parenting behaviors promote cooperation and moral reasoning? There'south reason to think so.

In a study that followed children throughout early on childhood, toddlers who engaged in mutually responsive, positive interactions with their mothers had more developed consciences when they reach schoolhouse age. These children were also more likely to comply with adult instructions (Kochanska and Murray 2000).

And enquiry has constitute links betwixt responsive parenting and empathy. Kids with more responsive mothers tend to show more empathy and prosocial behavior towards others (Davidov and Grusec 1996).

Is it the communication that really matters in these cases? Or are the links merely a reflection of something else — like a shared genetic tendency to be sensitive and cooperative?

As with all developmental miracle, a child's moral reasoning is afflicted past an interaction of genetic and environmental influences. But research supports our intuitions on this point: Kids are affected by our beliefs, and benefit when nosotros tailor our responses to fit their personalities.

For example, in a study tracking children from the age of two, researchers noticed that sensitive mothers used different tactics depending on their children'due south temperaments, and these adjustments predicted higher levels of moral reasoning at age five.

In detail, children with exuberant, outgoing temperaments turned out ameliorate if their mothers responded to toddler misbehavior by using redirection and distraction. These kids also responded well to gentle but firm prohibitions about what they shouldn't do. Reasoning with them was less constructive.

By contrast, the utilise of commands was unhelpful for children with fearful or inhibited temperaments. They responded better to reasoning (Augustine and Stifter 2015).

Results similar these underscore why it'due south counter-productive to define attachment parenting equally a set of required practices.

In its original conception, "zipper parenting" is some other name for beingness sensitive and responsive. By definition, that ways responding to each child on a example-by-example, individual ground. A practice that seems to work well with some children might be unsuitable for others.

Unproven claims and unanswered questions

Baby-wearing and crying

As noted higher up, baby-wearing may exist associated with higher rates of secure zipper. It likewise may help prevent plagiocephaly, the flattening of the back of the caput acquired by leaving babies on their backs for extended periods (Littlefield 2003).

But does babe-wearing reduce crying?

Intuitively, it seems that it should. However, with the exception of i report conducted in 1986 (Hunziger and Barr 1986), at that place isn't much scientific evidence to support the thought. For example, a 1995 report reports that "supplemental carrying" of infants had little effect on crying rates (St James-Roberts et al 1995). Peradventure, results depend on the temperament of the individual infant. For an overview of enquiry about crying, run across this Parenting Scientific discipline guide.

"Mind-mindedness"…the crucial factor?

"Mind-minded" parents treat their children–no matter how young– every bit individuals with minds, feelings, thoughts, and behavior of their ain.

Psychologist Elizabeth Meins and her colleagues accept shown that heed-minded parenting is linked with with the development of stronger empathy and perspective-taking skills in children.

It's too linked with more secure attachment relationships. In ane longitudinal report, listen-minded parenting at half-dozen months was correlated with more secure attachments at 12 months. Indeed, heed-minded parenting was a amend predictor of secure zipper than were any other variables, including "responsive, sensitive parenting" (Meins et al 2001).

This makes me wonder. Is mind-mindedness the true foundation of attachment parenting? For more information, opens in a new windowcheck out this article.

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For other, fully-referenced articles about issues related to zipper parenting, see these discussions of the opens in a new windowauthoritative parenting style and opens in a new windowother approaches to child-rearing.

Content of "Attachment parenting" concluding modified 10/fourteen/2017

Prototype credits for Attachment Parenting

image of female parent hugging her toddler son / istock

epitome of baby wearing father past opens in a new windowStephanie Archer / flickr

image of San hunter-gatherer family by opens in a new windowAino Tuominen / pixabay

paradigm of smiling mother and baby

image of grinning girl with sunglasses and canis familiaris by Nathan Hoskins/ Us Army

image of girl and boy grinning in the forest by opens in a new windowEden Janine and Jim / flickr

prototype of mother talking with toddler daughter on playground by opens in a new windowDonnie Ray / flickr

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Source: https://parentingscience.com/attachment-parenting/